论中美企业文化冲突及调适的策略

Contents

1. Introduction 1
2. Definition and Types of Business Culture 1
2.1 Definition of Business Culture 1
2.2 Types of Business Culture 2
3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture 4
3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies 4
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of American and Chinese Business Culture 7
4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures 9
sion 11
Acknowledgements 13
Bibliography: 14

 
1． Introduction

Business culture is the result of the commodity economy and the market economy. The so-called business culture, representing the method the company is using for the achievement of its unique purpose, is managing philosophy of arts in a company. In a word, business culture leads to the concept value of the company, the physical and psychical appearance of the whole staff, and the spiritual backbone of the company. 
From the prospective of the long development view, the forming of the business culture is also the process of setting up the company brand name. Through gaining the public recognition of enterprise identification, the company is also exploring the broader market space. For setting up a successful enterprise brand name needs more than the investment, the equipment and technique input. A unique business culture is also a must. The cultural factor will be a vital force not only in the development of enterprises, but also in the process of raising the enterprise recognition and setting up of the brand name.
This article aims to analyze and debug conflicts between American culture and Chinese culture, expecting to provide a model for Chinese company business culture construction.

2. Definition and Types of Business Culture
2.1 Definition of Business Culture 
Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as "Business culture". Here business culture refers to "the moral, social, and behavioral norms of an organization based on the beliefs, attitudes, and priorities of its members". Business culture is not a list of values developed at an offsite by the executive team and framed on the wall in their lobbies. These are ideals. Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. Most organizations don't consciously try to create a certain culture. The culture of the organization is typically created unconsciously, based on the values of the top management or the founders of an organization. In reality, what management pays attention to and rewards is often the strongest indicator of the business culture. This is often quite different from the values it verbalizes or the ideals it strives for. Culture drives the organization and its actions. It is somewhat like "the operating system" of the organization. It guides how employees think, act and feel. It is dynamic and fluid, and it is never static. A culture may be effective at one time, under a given set of circumstances and ineffective at another time. There is no generically good culture. There are, however, generic patterns of health and pathology.
2.2 Types of Business Culture
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner’s classification of the business culture is based on two dimensions, universalism-particularism and individualism-collectivism thus generating four quadrants. The dimensions they used to distinguish different business culture are equality-hierarchy and orientation to the person-orientation to the task. These two dimensions enable them to define four types of business culture. The four types can be described as family culture, Eiffel Tower culture, guided missile culture and incubator culture.
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner point out that these four types of business culture are “ideal types”. While in practice, the types are mixed or overlaid with one another. It’s rather complicated than our imagination. And this classification is useful for exploring the basis of each type in terms of how employees learn, change, resolve conflicts, reward, motivate and so on. (Wang, 2001:28)
2.2.1 Family Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner, the metaphor of family culture poses a kind of close relationship within the whole organization. “ It is personal and at the same time hierarchical，in the sense that the ‘father’ of the family has experience and authority greatly exceeding those of his ‘children’, especially when they are young. As a result, the leader in the organization is regarded as a caring father who knows better than his subordinates what should be done and what is good for them. However, rather than being threatening, this type of power is essentially intimate and (hopefully) benign. The work of the corporation in this type of culture is usually carried forward in an atmosphere that in many respects mimics the home.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:24) 
Father is always the represent ative of power and authority at home, especially in the Asian countries. However, he is also a caring father, whose power and authority seems quite intimate and benign, not threatening at all. (Here the absolute authority posed by some arbitrary leaders is exclusive in this setting). To some extend, the subordinates are passive to accept the arrangement and order of the father, but this order could essentially bring benefits to them. And the benign atmosphere of a big family is quite humanistic.
2.2.2 Eiffel Towel culture
As mentioned above, the nepotism within an organization would be regarded as corruption and a conflict of interest by some cultures for the reason that they emphasize on the various roles and functions prescribed in advance. They’re role-orientated. Everyone of the organization has been placed in a certain place, being responsible for the certain work prescribed by his or her supervisors. If every one of them dedicated to carry out their work successfully, the whole organization would be run smoothly forward. In other words, the whole organization assembles a pyramid，forming a certain kind of hierarchy. Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner have chosen the Eiffel Towel in Paris to symbolize this culture type, “because it is steep, symmetrical, narrow at the top and broad at the base, stable, rigid and robust.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:32) 
It’s characteristic to some degree to assemble that of the work hierarchy in role-orientated corporations. And more importantly, “its structure, too, is more important than its function”. Therefore, the organization, including the supervisors and the subordinates, pay their attention to the structure of the organization rather than the functions. Function would be taken over by structure under certain circumstances.
2.2.3 Guided Missile Culture
Equality, or the egalitarian，is the characteristic of guided missile culture. Everyone in an organization has taken up an unchangeable place and no one could be replaced by another. The role of each individual has been greatly emphasized. Moreover, “the guided missile culture is oriented to tasks, typically undertaken by teams or project groups”. Team and project group is the focus of their work. To some extent, accomplishing a project usually becomes the goal for the supervisors and subordinates.
The guided missile culture differs from the family culture type and the Eiffel Towel culture type. Egalitarian within an organization is emphasized rather than the interpersonal relationship that is typical in the family culture type. Changes come quickly to the guided missile culture. New project and target will come, and new groups will be formed, and new boss of the project will be nominated soon. Consequently, loyalties to professions and projects are greater than loyalties to the company. “The guided missile culture is in many respects the antithesis of the family culture, in which bonds are close and ties are of long duration and deep affection.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:51) 
Therefore, due to their task-orientated characteristics, it resembles the Eiffel Towel culture. The Eiffel Towel culture nevertheless pays attention to their inner structure rather than the egalitarian among the members, while the results of a project is what the guided missile culture emphasizes, not the means to accomplish it.
2.2.4 Incubator Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner，the incubator culture is based on the existential idea that organizations are secondary to the fulfilment of individuals. The individuality is the most influential value within this kind of organizations. The cultural incubator is quite similar to the logic of business. Both of them are designed to free individuals from the routines to more creative activities and to minimize time spent on self-maintenance. As a result, “incubators often, if not always, operate in an environment of intense emotional commitment”. (Fons Trompenaars,2001:75) The employees and the employers are working toward a common goal, to bring something beneficial to the society and the mankind. And the well-being of themselves is not so important compared with the greatness of the work they’re undertaken. For example, the computer could bring “power to the person”, and the gene-splicing could save crops, save lives, rescue the economy. They enjoy the process of creating and innovating. And that’s the pleasure of their lives. Thus the shared enthusiasm and super-ordinate goals constitute the invisible tie that forms the close relationships among the work partners, thus creating an honest, effective, nurturing working atmosphere.

3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture

3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies
3.1.1 Structure and hierarchy in American companies
American culture has some key conc epts and values such as individualism, low context culture and egalitarianism.
Individualism: The concept of individualism in the US plays a significant role in the lives of many Americans. American culture emphasizes individual initiative and personal achievement. Independence and self-reliance are highly valued and also extend to the workplace where business is frequently carried out autonomously. Consequently, one’s position in US society is determined by one’s own achievements as oppose to status or age.
Low context culture: Generally speaking, those cultures described as low context tend to communicate meaning and information explicitly through words. Americans are task-centered and thus the primary purpose of communication is to exchange information, facts, and opinions. In the US, conflict is dealt with directly and openly, and for this reason, Americans will not hesitate to say “no” or criticize others in public. This direct style of speech is often interpreted by foreigners as rude and may cause embarrassment to business people who are unaccustomed to such explicit communication. However, it is important to remember that in a business context it bears no relation to personal feelings and should not be taken as such.
Egalitarianism: An important element of American culture is the concept of equality. Despite the many differences within American society, there is a collective understanding of the notion of equality that underlines many social relationships in the US. Americans believe in having equal rights, equal social obligations, and equal opportunities based on the concept of individual merit. Consequently, there is a general lack of deference in the US to people of greater wealth, age, higher social status or authority. This is evident in the way in which titles are seldom used in business environments and how Americans call each other by their first names almost immediately. Egalitarianism also contributes to the system of merit frequently referred to as the “American Dream”, whereby hard work deserves success and financial prosperity. This in turn can often cause a dichotomy in the workplace and office hierarchy displaying a clear distinction between management and their subordinates.
In a country famous for its individualism and diversity, the organization and structure of companies within the US may differ according to the industry, region or company history. However, we can generally find that office hierarchy within an American company is extremely important.
Negotiations and final decisions in the US are frequently made by one person who has chief authority. Team negotiations are rarely carried out in American companies. In accordance with American business culture, the hierarchical chain of command often supersedes personal relationships. Personal competence, professionalism, and accountability for individual performance are highly valued in American business culture. As a result, managers are only approached for help in essential situations. These concepts also contribute to the highly competitive work ethic often experienced in the US. Developing personal relationships are not as significant in US business culture as they are in some Asian countries. In the United States, the overall goal of business is to secure the best deal, therefore forming company relationships are of greater value. And it is common for Americans to make clear distinctions between work colleagues and friends in their social life. In the US, meetings tend to be rather formal and little time is spent on cultivating social relationships.
3.1.2 Structure and hierarchy in Chinese companies
   Chinese imperial history is seen to play out in the modern-day business realm. The operation of a company bears much resemblance to a Chinese dynastic empire that existed hundreds or thousands of years ago. A patriarchal and totalitarian system is central to corporate management style in a Chinese-owned company. Similarities abound between the empire and the company in areas ranging from the power core set-up, to emperor-minister (boss-manager) relationship, to behavioral patterns amongst ministers (managers).
The Chinese corporate boss, like the emperor, assumes absolute power over his company and is unlikely to relinquish it to his heirs until his death. It does not matter whether he is a Western educated MBA or just a high school graduate. As long as he is an ethnic Chinese, it is more likely than not that he considers himself the “emperor” of his company and treats his employees as though they were his subjects. He is the sole decision-making person and is accountable to no one within the company’s management hierarchy. It is highly unlikely that he would want to share his power with any one.
In the modern-day corporate arena, the Chinese boss plays the emperor’s role and acts in pretty much the same way. In this scenario, the role of dynastic ministers is taken by senior managers while that of subjects is taken by other staff members. To keep a tight rein on senior managers, the boss usually requires them to report in detail their activities in frequent regular meetings. They are expected to devote their heart and mind fully to serving the boss at all hours. Even then, the boss still would not trust his senior managers to take part in important decision making, not unless they have been with the company for at least twenty years.
In their contest for the boss’s attention, some senior managers spend far more time in engaging in slimy politics than doing real work within the corporate confines. Their chief aim is to please the boss and his clan (especially his spouse or lover, and sometimes his secretary) in whatever way they can, because that is the surest way of getting favors from him. In proving their worth to him, managers must do their best to discredit their rivals, either explicitly or furtively. They consider their peers as their natural enemies.
    If one word can epitomize the interpersonal relationship within such a company, it is “distrust”, and it starts from the top. But it is hard to find an explanation for the everlasting lust for absolute power and absolute control.
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of America and Chinese Business Culture 
     The differences between American and Chinese business culture are extensive, particularly when it comes to direct communication between buyers and sellers. How well you understand Chinese and American business cultures can mean the difference between a successful career and a failed one.
Family Business Dynamic: In America, if an enterprise is said to be "family owned and operated", people typically think it is "cute" and "quaint". For the Chinese business culture, however, this is the norm. Business models are operated based on family obligations rather than the pursuit of riches, a custom that was strengthened by Confucianism.
   Purpose of Business: In the Chinese business culture, the purpose of owning a business is to provide for one's family. In most cases, the business is run primarily by the dominant family head, to whom all other family members and employees defer. He is responsible for making important decisions, hiring new employees and executing changes. Unlike the American business culture, the Chinese don't follow an organized chain of command except for purposes of appearance. It isn't rare for a middle-management employee to take a question directly to the dominant family head, rather than observing protocol through the chain of command.
Financial Disclosure: Most large corporations in America are publicly traded, which means that they are also publicly scrutinized. The Chinese, on the other hand, are far more private about financial matters, and usually keep the majority of that information to themselves. They file their taxes, but keep a separate set of books for the dominant family head.
Sources of Financing: American businesses are funded largely by financial institutions, private lenders, and the sale of securities. Chinese businesses, on the other hand, are largely financed by the family. They might take out loans with friends of the family or use familial connections to secure investment funds, but they don't typically look outside private sources. Because of this, the Chinese business culture is based primarily on the informal impressions of the dominant family head. This extends not only into financing, but also executive decisions, hiring, firing and acquisitions.
Sales & Marketing: In America, the companies rely on advertising and monetary incentives for sales and marketing. Most of their efforts in this area are concentrated on monetary gain and the most cost-effective ways to get the word into the community. The Chinese business culture, however, is much different in that they garner most sales through family connections.
Future Business: The Chinese business culture is centered on long-term profitable relationships and family honor. While Americans look at the current bottom line and this month's profits, a Chinese business will be more likely to view each transaction as an investment in the future.
Mindset about management hierarchy: In American business culture, rank and title are not as important as in they are in China. Hierarchical forms of behavior are frowned upon. The expectation is that subordinates will speak up, offer suggestions, push back and take initiative rather than just do what they’re told. Decisions tend to be less top-down, authority is more delegated, and managers expect team members to take responsibility and assume ownership of results.
Attitudes towards appointments and deadlines: For Americans, strict adherence to time commitments is seen as a basic principle of professionalism and courteous behavior. Because everything tends to be strictly scheduled, delays in one appointment or deadline can have a seriou s ripple effect on a colleague or customer’s other work commitments. The more flexible and open-ended approach to time of Chinese business culture can create tensions and unfavorable impressions on American counterparts.
Meaning of agreements and commitments: Americans have a preference for clear, detailed agreements and are uneasy with vague expressions of general commitment. In business interactions, commitments are taken literally and seriously. Failure to follow through on them precisely is viewed as a sign that a person is not trustworthy. Chinese business culture tends to view agreements more flexibly as intentions and guidelines for future action.
Results vs. process orientation: In Chinese business culture, following the rules and implementing correct processes is highly valued, but in American business culture, it’s all about results. There is impatience with individuals who come across as more concerned with following established processes correctly than with achieving the desired goal. Americans don’t like to be told all the procedural reasons why something can’t be or has not been done.
Directness – especially in addressing disagreements: The American style of communication is characteristically direct, candid, and relatively unconcerned with face-saving or the avoidance of conflict. The expectation is that questions will get answered with a clear “yes” or “no”, and that disagreements will be dealt with openly and straightforwardly, in a “tell it like it is” manner. Chinese people tending to avoid conflict and loss of face often find it hard to say “no” or raise problematic issues effectively with their American counterparts.

4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures
 
Cultural awareness and the ability to adapt effectively to another culture’s way of doing things are complex skills. Everyone tends to take his own cultural ways of doing things for granted, and to assume they are self-evident to others. The cost in terms of cross-cultural communication blunders, project delays, team conflicts and overall productivity is considerable. In a CIO Magazine survey not long ago, 51% of the CIOs reported that cultural differences were their greatest challenge in offshore outsourcing. The long-held belief that technical qualifications are sufficient to ensure project success – and that the shared engineering or other professional culture is stronger than national differences in work styles – is gradually crumbling in the face of the everyday on-the-ground experience of global multicultural teams in the offshore and outsourcing environment.
    As the foremost “hot spot” for America’s offshore and outsourcing of technology and business services functions today, China presents an important case study of differences in business culture.  Recurring themes and incidents have been found that point to underlying cross-cultural differences in mindset, values and approach to business interactions.
    In recent years, American companies have shown growing awareness of the hidden costs of cross-cultural mismatches in work-related behaviors. They have been willing to invest in general and region-specific cross-cultural training for their onshore employees and those who are asked to travel to China. They have also learned to devise process accommodations to circumvent the negative effects of certain cultural tendencies in their offshore teams and Chinese business partners.
    What these companies seldom undertake to address directly is the need to seriously educate their offshore teams and inform their Chinese business partners the fundamentals of American business culture – the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms that Americans expect. 
    There is competitive advantage to be gained through serious attention to improving the cultural competency of offshore teams and Chinese business partners. Training in “soft skills” is no longer as undervalued in China as it used to be. Growing numbers of Chinese companies are coming to realize that the ability of their employees to communicate and interact more effectively is an important competitive factor. American companies in China are also showing more keenness to develop the business and leadership skills of their Chinese employees, and to move gradually from the cheap labor or staff augmentation model to one where the Chinese operation is a value-adding center excellence.
Knowledge and internalization of the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms of American and Chinese business cultures is a necessary ingredient of this scenario for the future. For Americans who do business with the Chinese, it is essential to find out who maintains the most power in the organization and deal directly with him and it is important to maintain respectful distance concerning financial matters. It might be appropriate in America to bring up quarterly reports and other public information, but the Chinese don't appreciate forthright discussion of finances. It is important to establish a personal connection with whoever makes the most important decisions. Tokens of appreciation, phone calls to inquire about customer satisfaction, and in-person visits to express interest are the best ways to ensure repeat sales. This is why many American businesses that work with Chinese corporations require extensive international travel of their sales personnel. What’s more, Americans must learn how to cultivate long-term relationships with the Chinese. Continued satisfaction with products and services is essential, as is a continued personal bond with those in charge.
And for the Chinese counterparts, they should get to know more about American business culture. In the US, punctuality is an essential part of business etiquette and as such scheduled appointments or meetings must be attended on time. Americans perceive lateness as a sign of disrespect.
Deadlines are strictly adhered to in American business culture. Americans place great emphasis on getting the best results in the quickest time. American counterparts may appear to be hasty in their decision-making. This, however, is due to the fact that the concept “time is money” is taken extremely seriously in the US. 
It is customary to begin and end business meetings with a brief but firm handshake. Maintaining direct eye contact during this initial greeting and whenever in conversation is also essential.
The exchanging of business cards is a casual affair in the US and as such demands no clear ritual or set of rules. Americans regard business cards as a resource for future information. On the occasions when they are exchanged, it may be done either during introductions or when leaving.
During negotiations, it is important to remember that the aim of most business discussions in the US is to arrive at a signed contract. Americans consider negotiations as problem-solving situations based on mutual benefit and personal strengths. Therefore, emphasis is placed on one’s financial position and power.
When doing business with American counterparts, it is expected to adhere to rules and guidelines that US business counterparts must also follow. Company policy and business procedures such as legally binding contracts, are aspects of American business culture that require strict compliancy.

5．Conclusion

In the 21st century, with the development of knowledge-based economy and globalization of economy, competition among corporation is reflected in the cultural competition. The business culture is playing an important role in corporate survival and development, and it has become the cornerstone and key factors in corporation competition. Taking a panoramic view of successful corporations, each one has its own deep culture, but culture is the darkest area, and also the most challenging aspect which reflects in the values, moral and communication methods. It is also reflected in the habits of the staff. This shows that business culture is closely related to the corporation survival and development. Building business culture will surely become a hot topic.
    As mentioned above, the business culture is a powerful force. Some material resources will be exhausted but the cultural resources are endless. The business culture is an invisible productivity, intangible assets and wealth. The business culture will greatly promote the development of corporation. If a corporation can make the relation between corporation and business culture harmonious, sufficient and active, the business culture will prompt a long-term development for corporation development.

 
Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhou Yansha, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without his help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
 
Bibliography:
 
.Huaxia Press, 2003.
[2] Lisa, n Sachs:The Culture of Success.[M]. Britain knopf, 1999.
[3] James, t & James Heskitt. Corporate Culture and Performance[M]. Chinese People's University Press, 2004.
[4] Daniel, R．Denison. Business culture & Organizational Effectiveness[M]. Beijing University Press, 1995.
[5] 张德.企业文化建设[M].清华大学出版社,2003.
[6] 梁水源.美国企业文化的新载体[J]. 企业管理,2008(06).
[7] 罗长海.陈小明.肖春燕.郭灿希.企业文化建设个案评析[M].清华大学出版社,2006.
[8] 陆更颖.刘星.浅论美国跨国企业中的多元商 业文化[J]. 对外经贸实务, 2009(01).
[9] 申望.企业文化实务与成功案例[M].民主与建设出版社,2003.
[10] 王超逸.李庆善.企业文化教程[M].中国时代经济出版社,2006.
[11] 夏忠.美国企业文化具有哪些基本特色[J]. 商场现代化, 2008,(07). 
[12] 周施恩.企业文化理论与实务[M].首都经济贸易大学出版社,2006.